After Tragedy Strikes: Exposure Protection for Post-Disaster Clean-up Workers
From wildfires to floods, cleanup crews face serious respiratory and skin exposure risks. What lessons can be learned from the Lahaina and California fires and applied to PPE and respiratory protection programs?
- By Dennis Terpin
- May 01, 2025
The objective of any PPE and respiratory protection program is to prevent exposure from unknown and recognized hazards such as biological, fibers, particulates, crystals, harmful dust, fumes, mists, gases, smoke, vapors, by-products, or sprays, and thus to prevent occupational illness.
How do we know if the hazards are harmful?
The best way is to conduct an exposure assessment. An exposure assessment is the process of estimating (past monitoring) or measuring the magnitude, frequency, and duration of exposure to any agent, along with the number, work activity and characteristics of the worker population exposed. Do not forget to have a heat stress presentation plan.
Preplanning PPE and respiratory protection for disaster cleanups can also be accomplished by reviewing a previous disaster’s after-action reports. The exposure potential is based on the type, sources, pathways, routes of exposure and the variables in the assessment. The dose is dependent upon environmental concentration, properties of the toxicant, frequency of exposure and the individual.
Wildfires
Hazards associated with fire ash include Respirable Fibers, Particulate Matter, VOCs, and other agents. Respirable fibers are those fibers that can be inhaled into the lower lung and usually only fibers with diameters of <3. µm are considered respirable in humans. Components like calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and silicon are also exposure concerns. Construction materials may include asbestos, silica, arsenic, and mercury. Hazards of Wildfire Soot include carbons and carcinogens such as arsenic, cadmium, and chromium. Other chemicals include sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, methane, metals, and acids.
Floods Waters
Exposure concerns from flood waters can include sludge waste, bacteria, mold, spores, fungi, viruses, and contaminated sandbags. Following the devastating F5 tornado that struck Joplin, Missouri in 2011, a cluster of cases of a rare fungal infection called “mucormycosis” emerged among the injured, primarily caused by a fungus named “Apophysomyces” which is commonly found in soil and decaying organic matter; this infection occurred due to the traumatic implantation of fungal spores from debris picked up by the tornado, leading to potentially fatal soft-tissue infections in some victims, even those with otherwise healthy immune systems.
Chemical Exposures
Are there any mandatory or recommended occupational exposure levels for the contaminants that are present? Personal exposure monitoring is the “platinum standard” for determining employee exposures because it is the most reliable approach for assessing how much and what type of respiratory protection is required in each circumstance. Sampling should utilize methods appropriate for contaminants(s). Sampling should present the worst-case exposures, or sampling should represent enough shifts and operations to determine the range of exposures covering all work activities through the cleanup.
Exposure Pathways
Specific characteristics of the potential hazards must be established to select appropriate PPE and respiratory protection. Is the airborne contaminant a particulate (dust, fumes, mist, aerosol) or a gas/vapor? Asbestos was used in the construction of the North Tower of the WTC. When the building was attacked, hundreds of tons of asbestos were released into the atmosphere. Over 75% of the first responders’ firefighters, police officers, EMTs, paramedics, construction workers, volunteers, and cleanup crews who worked in the rubble at Ground Zero have developed some type of respiratory illness.
At disaster sites, potential skin toxic materials include chemicals from industrial spills (like solvents, pesticides, and heavy metals), hazardous materials from damaged containers, asbestos fibers from building debris, certain types of fuel, and even contaminated floodwater which can all cause skin irritation, burns, allergic reactions, and systemic toxicity if absorbed through the skin depending on the specific substance involved.
Acute and chronic exposures to skin toxic materials such as aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene, xylene, and acetone can cause irritation, and dermatitis. Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and arsenic can accumulate in the body and cause long-term health issues. pesticides and herbicides can be highly irritating to the skin and potentially toxic if absorbed. Caustic chemicals like strong acids and bases can cause severe burns on contact. Asbestos fibers can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin, leading to lung diseases like mesothelioma. Petroleum products such as diesel and gasoline can cause skin irritation and dermatitis. Industrial chemicals: Depending on the location of the disaster and location industrial chemicals like formaldehyde, isocyanates, and chromates could be present.
Hazard Identification
OSHA guidelines require a written hazard assessment and a Health and Safety Plan (HASP) before any work activities can start. A hazard assessment is needed to identify all potential hazards present including hazardous materials, sharp debris, contaminated water, structural instability, and extreme weather conditions.
A PPE assessment involves evaluating the potential hazards present to determine the appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) needed by responders and cleanup workers, taking into account factors like chemical exposure, debris, biological hazards, and environmental conditions, to ensure their safety while working in potentially dangerous situations; this assessment is typically conducted by a component person or safety officer.
OSHA has referred to disaster workers as second responders, which I disagree with. They are first responders since the incident is fluid and constantly changing.
According to OSHA, disaster workers typically require training that includes a minimum of a “Disaster Site Worker” courses or a disaster specific 40-hour health and safety course, which often incorporates elements of general safety training, hazard communication, personal protective equipment (PPE) use, basic first aid, and specific hazards related to disaster sites, potentially including hazardous materials awareness depending on the situation.
Minimum Level of Protection
If exposure to liquids or to both soot and liquids is anticipated, or if the form of the contaminants is unknown, the outer coveralls at a minimum should be made of chemically resistant materials such as Saranax®-coated Tyvek. These will provide protection from dry and wet exposure potentials.
Elastomeric air-purifying respirators (APRs) equipped with a high-efficiency particulate air P-100 (HEPA) filter combined with an organic vapor (OV) and formaldehyde cartridge. N95 respirators do not protect against gases, vapors, or asbestos. Use the correct chemical protective clothing. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) recommends using duct tape to seal chemical suits because it does not protect against vapors. Duct tape can also be flammable and may not be suitable for all chemical-resistant suits.
All suits that pass NFPA standards (1991, 1992, and 1994) are required to do so without the use of tape. This is because tape cannot be relied upon to increase protection as its application in field operations is not reproducible. Testing has demonstrated that gaps and openings remain.
Regulatory compliance needs to be in practice before the disaster occurs to be able to safeguard your employees’ safety and health.
This article originally appeared in the April/May 2025 issue of Occupational Health & Safety.